Abstract
Background: Climate change has a negative impact on smallholder farming, affecting both agricultural production and livelihoods. Agricultural extension services offer an essential role in enabling smallholder farmers to adapt and mitigate the impacts of climate change through information dissemination, capacity building and the promotion of climate-smart agricultural practices.
Aim: This study explores the challenges and constraints faced by agricultural extension in supporting climate change adaptation and mitigation among smallholder farmers.
Setting: The study focuses on agricultural extension services in South Africa.
Methods: A systematic review of literature on agricultural extension services and climate change in South Africa from 2000 to 2025 was conducted.
Results: It was found that limited capacity building, poor coordination and lack of coherent systematic approaches to extension services affect farmers’ responses to climate-related challenges. Integration of extension services, inclusive crop and livestock production, land-use and water management, with climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies is significant for enhancing agricultural production.
Conclusion: Targeted training, collaborations, adequate funding and adaptive and climate-resilient agricultural extension services can potentially improve food security among farming communities.
Contribution: The review provides insights into how agricultural extension services can contribute to the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) to improve farming.
Keywords: agricultural extension; sustainability; climate change adaptation; climate-smart agriculture; South Africa.
Introduction
Climate change alters weather variables such as temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed, sunshine duration and evaporation (Abebaw 2025; Kumar et al. 2022). Its severity is a serious global challenge because ocean temperatures have been rising by an average of 0.06°C per decade since 1850 (Yuan et al. 2024). Human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, population growth and greenhouse gas emissions contribute to climate change (Bibi & Rahman 2023; Yuan et al. 2024). Agricultural production is sensitive to climate variability, and it is the primary source of income in developing countries (Abebaw 2025; Bibi & Rahman 2023). In Africa, agricultural production plays a significant role in improving livelihoods, particularly in rural areas (Kemboi, Mazenda & Katiyatiya 2024; Mpandeli & Maponya 2014). However, climate change has been influencing water scarcity, drought and floods, threatening food production needed to meet the demands of the growing population (Katiyatiya et al. 2022; Ndlovu & Zenda 2024).
Agriculture in South Africa is dualistic, comprising commercial and small-scale subsistence farming (Calzadilla, Zhu & Rehdanz 2014). South Africa has been experiencing average annual temperatures of 15°C to 36°C and −2°C to 26°C in the summer and winter seasons, respectively. The country also experiences fewer cool days and annual rainfall of about 456 mm, which signifies increased water scarcity in the country (Maponya & Mpandeli 2012; World Bank Group 2021). South Africa’s diverse agroecological zones and high vulnerability to climate variability pose significant threats to its vital agricultural sector and the millions of people reliant on rain-fed agriculture (Ncoyini-Manciya & Manciya 2025). Therefore, the incorporation of sustainable strategies, such as climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices, by farmers is paramount. Climate-smart agriculture promotes sustainable productivity, income growth and climate resilience and emission reductions, but effective adoption relies on responsive agricultural extension services (Billah, Mahmudur & Mahimairaja 2025; Maka et al. 2021; Sala, Rossi & Davis 2016).
According to Ongachi and Belinder (2025), agricultural extension services are instrumental in supporting farmers, enabling them to enhance agricultural production, increase income and manage resources and collaborations, which are crucial for poverty alleviation. They provide a means by which the efficient diffusion of innovative information can be conveyed to farmers, enabling increased production (Oladele & Ngidi 2025; Raji, Ijomah & Eyieyien 2024). Agricultural extension services offer information, tools and assistance for adaptation and mitigation measures that are critical in preparing farmers for climatic stressors (Ncoyini-Manciya & Manciya 2025; Raji et al. 2024; Sala et al. 2016). They support global climate goals by enhancing farmer agency, promoting strategies and fostering knowledge exchange; hence, modernising extension systems is encouraged (Mapiye et al. 2021; Mdiya et al. 2023).
Although there are existing studies on CSA practices and extension services, their findings are often inconsistent, fragmented or lack synthesis. A gap exists because of the absence of a comprehensive and integrative review of how extension services contribute to CSA adoption, their constraints and their effectiveness. Therefore, this review adds to the body of knowledge by systematically synthesising available literature on the prospects, constraints and effectiveness of agricultural extension services in promoting CSA in South Africa. The study focuses on the role of extension services in promoting CSA while identifying key challenges and opportunities for enhancing their capacity. The review aims to inform policy and capacity-building programmes and institutional reforms that support effective extension-based CSA dissemination. The study contributes to bridging the gap between climate adaptation frameworks and agricultural knowledge transfer, thereby supporting climate-resilient and sustainable agricultural development.
Research methods and design
Search strategy
A systematic review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al. 2021). The review focused on articles published on agricultural extension services and CSA between 2000 and 2025, capturing recent developments in agriculture in South Africa. The databases used for the literature search were Web of Science and Scopus. However, the initial search did not yield many results. Therefore, the literature search was expanded using SpringerLink, Agricola, PubMed and Google Scholar databases, as well as reference lists, to identify any literature that may have been overlooked in the initial search. The databases were used to broaden the comprehensive literature search and reduce the risk of bias. The search strings used were:
- (‘climate-smart agriculture’ OR CSA) AND (‘agricultural extension’ OR ‘extension services’) AND ‘South Africa’ AND (constraints OR challenges OR barriers OR impediments OR prospects OR opportunities OR potential).
- (climat* AND smart AND agricultur*) AND (extension OR outreach OR ‘knowledge transfer’) AND (‘South Africa’ OR RSA) AND (limitations OR obstacles OR hindrances OR advancements OR innovations OR future OR ‘best practices’).
- (‘climate change adaptation’ OR ‘climate change mitigation’ OR ‘sustainable agriculture’) AND (extension OR ‘advisory services’) AND ‘South Africa’ AND (bottlenecks OR difficulties OR potential OR solutions OR ‘policy recommendations’).
Study selection and eligibility
Study selection for relevant literature was conducted by two independent reviewers who screened the titles and abstracts. Full-text reviews of potentially relevant retrieved articles were assessed by the independent reviewers against the eligibility criteria. Eligible studies focused on agricultural extension services, extension officers, farmers and policymakers within agricultural development. Studies discussing CSA practices, adoption, implementation and related extension service delivery focusing on South Africa were considered. Empirical research studies and grey literature that provided primary data, as well as review articles providing insights relevant to the current study, were also considered. Empirical studies were defined as published articles that used qualitative, quantitative and mixed-method approaches to collect data on CSA and extension services. Grey literature included reports and publications that highlighted methodologies and empirical evidence. The inclusion criteria also considered studies published in English between 2000 and 2025. Excluded literature included studies that did not focus on South Africa or were not directly related to agricultural extension or CSA, opinion pieces, editorials and duplicate publications.
A total of 527 records were initially identified from all the databases and manual searches. Duplicates were removed, and the remaining 182 studies were screened based on their titles and abstracts. Of these, 92 records were excluded based on title and abstract screening because they were not relevant to CSA and agricultural extension. Full texts for 90 articles were assessed for eligibility based on the inclusion criteria. This resulted in the exclusion of 34 studies because they did not focus on South Africa or extension services, or lacked discussion of the prospects and constraints of CSA. A total of 56 studies that met all the inclusion criteria were included in the narrative review as illustrated in Figure 1. Mendeley reference management software was utilised to sort the literature, remove duplicates and group the studies.
Results
The data were assessed, and a narrative synthesis was conducted because of the heterogeneity in methodologies and outcome measures across the studies. Thematic analysis was used to group the findings into themes. The key themes were: (1) climate change and smallholder farmers’ resilience; (2) sustainable agriculture and food security; (3) the role of extension in promoting CSA; (4) prospects of extension to enhance CSA adoption; and (5) challenges and constraints of CSA-based extension services. The review’s strength lies in utilising the PRISMA guidelines within the narrative analytical framework. This approach enabled structured literature identification and flexible thematic interpretation, thereby enhancing the depth of understanding regarding the linkages between CSA and extension services in South Africa.
Table 1 shows the CSA practices that can be promoted through extension services. These practices include soil and crop management, water management, crop diversification, livestock management and precision farming.
| TABLE 1: Climate-smart agriculture practices promoted through extension services in South Africa. |
Table 2 provides a summary of factors that enable adoption of extension-facilitated CSA practices. Effective extension strategies, training and capacity building, institutional arrangements, partnerships, farmer characteristics and policy approaches enable adoption of climate-smart agriculture.
| TABLE 2: Enabling factors for extension – facilitated climate-smart agriculture adoption. |
Table 3 shows the constraints and challenges associated with extension services that relate to climate-smart agriculture. these include resource limitations, capacity gaps, institutional constraints, and communication constraints.
Discussion
Climate change and smallholder farmers’ resilience
Findings show that climate change has significantly affected agriculture and food security for South African smallholder farmers, primarily because of water scarcity and drought (Omotayo et al. 2025a). Makamane et al. (2025) reported that prolonged droughts impacted 54% of farmers, while 20% were affected by changing rainfall patterns, leading to reduced agricultural productivity and food and nutrition insecurity across different provinces. South Africa’s status as one of the driest countries and its uneven rainfall distribution have severely limited dryland crop production, particularly in vulnerable areas such as the Vhembe district (Serote et al. 2021). Furthermore, climate variability has increased extreme weather events, worsening water scarcity and negatively affecting crop production (Maponya & Mpandeli 2013).
Omotayo et al. (2025a) found that smallholder farmers adopted water conservation techniques, such as soil and water conservation practices, to reduce water loss and irrigation needs and combat climate challenges. Senyolo et al. (2021) reported that climate-smart irrigation technologies such as rainwater harvesting, drip and sprinkler irrigation were utilised. Additionally, micro-catchments, mulching and water harvesting improved efficiency in semi-arid areas (Zuma-Netshiukhwi et al. 2025). Precision irrigation and in-field water harvesting were key innovations for addressing water scarcity and enhancing sustainable management within CSA frameworks (Makamane et al. 2025; Olabanji & Chitakira 2025).
Sustainable agriculture and food security
The findings show that South African smallholder farmers are implementing diverse CSA practices with varying success. Omotayo et al. (2025a) found that in Limpopo, Mpumalanga and North-West provinces, more than 60% of farmers adopted CSA methods such as soil and water conservation and drought-tolerant varieties. The Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality reported higher adoption at 66% of farmers, utilising practices such as agroforestry and improved water management (Makamane et al. 2023). However, the adoption of climate-smart irrigation technologies was lower at 46% in Limpopo (Serote et al. 2021). Specific CSA techniques differed by province, with drought-tolerant maize and zero tillage noted in North-West, while the Free State and Limpopo showed broader agroecological strategies including crop rotation and livestock integration (Omotoso et al. 2024). Similar climate-smart strategies implemented by farmers were reported by Olabanji and Chitakira (2025) and Zuma-Netshiukhwi et al. (2025).
Adoption of CSA has a positive influence on food security. This concurs with Omotayo et al. (2025a), who found a 30% increase in Household Dietary Diversity Scores (HDDS) and a 35% reduction in Household Food Insecurity Access Scores (HFIAS). Similar reports on improved food and nutrition security associated with the adoption of CSA practices were observed by Omotayo, Omotoso and Asong (2025b) and Omotayo et al. (2025a). Omotoso et al. (2024) reported that smallholder maize farmers who adopted CSA practices had improved food and nutrition security, as they had lower HFIAS and higher HDDS than non-adopters, respectively. This is significant because increased HDDS indicates better dietary quality and nutrition security, while decreased HFIAS reflects improved food accessibility for households (Atta-Aidoo et al. 2022). Better food consumption patterns and dietary diversity among farmers adopting CSA practices were also reported by Khumalo, Sibanda and Mdoda (2025). Senyolo et al. (2021) found that the use of drought-tolerant seeds improved crop yields, leading to reduced food prices and enhanced food security. Serote et al. (2021) and Maponya and Mpandeli (2013) highlighted that extension services further decreased the likelihood of food scarcity and high food prices for farmers receiving support.
Extension services are crucial for promoting CSA adoption in South Africa, yet their impact varies significantly (Omotayo et al. 2025a, 2025b). In Mangaung, 71% of smallholder farmers accessed extension services compared to 49% in Limpopo (Makamane et al. 2023). The quality of services was affected by low education levels among extension officers (Makamane et al. 2023). Stakeholders such as the government and non-governmental organisations provide extension services; however, factors such as poor service quality, lack of coordination and insufficient resources limit their effectiveness (Olabanji & Chitakira 2025). Despite these challenges, farmers with effective extension support are more likely to adopt CSA practices. This will contribute to improvements in technology adoption and the alleviation of unemployment and food shortages (Maponya & Mpandeli 2013; Olabanji & Chitakira 2025).
The role of extension in promoting climate-smart agriculture
Extension services play a vital role in enhancing farmers’ awareness of climate risks, encouraging technology adoption and aiding resource management. This is supported by Abegunde, Sibanda and Obi (2022) and Maka (2025). In the Eastern Cape, these services have promoted improved knowledge of drought-resistant crops and innovative practices (Maka, Ighodaro & Ngcobo-Ngotho 2019). This highlights the significance of agricultural extension services in South Africa for knowledge diffusion and learning, which connect smallholder farmers with the Department of Agriculture (Christian et al. 2020; Kephe, Brilliant & Kingsley 2021).
South Africa’s extension system has shifted to a pluralistic model involving various stakeholders, although traditional training methods are still being implemented (Davis & Terblanché 2016; Mudzielwana 2024). Maulu et al. (2021) reported that the traditional ‘top-down’ approach to extension, where knowledge is commonly disseminated from experts to farmers, is largely ineffective. More effective participatory approaches, such as farmer field schools, are gaining recognition. A shift to a more participatory and holistic approach, involving close collaboration with farmers and other stakeholders, is critical (Smidt & Jokonya 2022; Van Niekerk, Von Maltitz & Davis 2022). A study by Bhatnagar et al. (2024) showed that extension services act as critical links between farmers and climate information, early warning systems, value chains and financial resources. They, in turn, function as innovation brokers in climate-resilient agri-food systems.
Prospects of extension to enhance climate-smart agriculture adoption
Participatory approaches
Previous studies have shown that participatory advisory methods such as on-farm demonstrations and farmer learning groups improve trust and increase adoption rates and engagement (Habanyati & Paramasivam 2025). Integrating indigenous knowledge with scientific innovations enhances local relevance (Makamane et al. 2023; Rankoana 2022). Furthermore, incorporating youth and gender perspectives through targeted training and outreach can empower marginalised communities to lead in climate innovation (Phelps 2024; Ranjitha & Malhotra 2024).
Digital and climate information integration
Digital platforms enhance extension capabilities through scalable solutions such as mobile advisories and artificial intelligence-driven climate analytics (Ngulube 2025). Key requirements for digital transformation include connectivity, digital literacy training, integration of seasonal forecasts and the incorporation of early warning systems, to transition advisory methods from reactive to anticipatory models (Maka et al. 2021; Makate et al. 2019).
Capacity building and curriculum reform
Extension officers often show theoretical awareness of climate change, but their practical implementation capacity is limited. Enhancements in continuous professional development, problem-oriented training and curriculum reforms in agricultural training institutes are essential (Maka et al. 2021; Van Niekerk et al. 2022). Effective climate-smart extension necessitates multidisciplinary competencies, including technical CSA expertise, communication skills, entrepreneurship, value-chain knowledge and digital literacy (Van Staden 2020a, 2020b). Their absence hinders the effective implementation of climate adaptation strategies.
Policy coherence and institutional coordination
A recurring issue in policies related to agriculture, climate and rural development is fragmentation (Chevallier 2023; Thow et al. 2018; Zembe, David & Chipangura 2023). Extension services can serve as effective platforms to coordinate national climate commitments with local agricultural practices (Davila et al. 2024; Kapari et al. 2023). Strengthening partnerships among universities, research institutions, government departments, farmer organisations and private sector actors is crucial for facilitating rapid knowledge generation and dissemination during climate events (Raidimi & Kabiti 2019). Essential conditions for scaling CSA include policy coherence, secure land rights, cooperative strengthening and inclusive governance (Maka et al. 2019; Olabanji & Chitakira 2025).
Constraints and challenges of climate-smart agriculture–based extension services
Despite their potential, extension services face persistent constraints such as institutional, financial, technical, infrastructure-related and sociocultural and adoption barriers. A study by Rankoana (2023) reported that South Africa had no specific recommended extension model because of previously observed failures. Molieleng, Fourie and Nwafor (2021) reported that extension and advisory services play a crucial role in the adoption of CSA practices. However, limited access to extension services or a lack of access to extension services has been reported in South Africa. Maka et al. (2019) found that more than 60% of livestock farmers in the Eastern Cape had challenges with the availability of extension services. Gwala, Monde and Muchenje (2016) found that the lack of extension support affected farmers under the Nguni cattle project. These findings highlight challenges currently faced by farmers and extension officers in service delivery.
Institutional constraints
Bureaucratic inefficiencies, weak policy coordination and limited accountability mechanisms negatively affect extension services’ delivery, quality and innovation. Ineffective top-down information flow and farmer feedback are also a challenge affecting agricultural extension (Maka et al. 2019; Mapiye & Dzama 2024; Mdiya et al. 2023). The lack of national policy and guidelines for extension and advisory services can lead to confusion, duplication of efforts and a lack of accountability (Habanyati & Paramasivam 2025). Current norms often lack explicit coverage of climate change and CSA. Inadequate incentives, salary delays and limited career pathways can reduce motivation and increase staff turnover. Insufficient funding affects service delivery and the introduction of new farming methods (Maka et al. 2019; Olabanji & Chitakira 2025). This impacts the ability to recruit, train and retain qualified extension personnel and to implement effective outreach programmes (Serote et al. 2023). Addressing institutional constraints is crucial for improving agricultural productivity, farmer livelihoods and rural development outcomes.
Financial constraints
Unstable funding, budget prioritisation of fixed costs over field operations and insufficient resources for farm visits and innovation are common financial constraints to the delivery of CSA-related extension services. Financial constraints are the primary obstacles to effective extension services globally, with unstable funding being the top barrier. International funding withdrawals have resulted in many organisations struggling with budget shortfalls, thereby hindering personnel recruitment, resource procurement and reaching remote areas (Davis & Terblanché 2016; Loki & Mdoda 2025). Misappropriation of funds and delays in payment processing further complicate rendering of extension services. Budget constraints in extension organisations lead to compromised service quality and reach (Afful, Obi & Lategan 2014). Fixed staff costs consume budgets, causing cutbacks in field operations and maintenance. Alternative funding sources may not fully compensate, causing dysfunction and sustainability challenges (Lukhalo & Zwane 2022).
Technical constraints
Technical constraints such as high extension agent-to-farmer ratios, inadequate practical CSA competencies, limited digital skills and weak curriculum alignment with emerging climate needs affect the exchange of information on CSA. Competency gaps influence the effectiveness of agricultural extension service delivery. These include a lack of essential skills and knowledge among extension workers, which affect their effective performance (Van Niekerk et al. 2022). There is also a deficit in technical knowledge related to modern farming practices, such as CSA, and in soft skills like communication, facilitation and entrepreneurship (Maulu et al. 2021; Mmbengwa et al. 2009). A lack of competencies and continuous learning can widen the gap between existing skills and emerging needs (Maulu et al. 2021). South Africa’s extension services need comprehensive capacity building to address theoretical knowledge gaps and develop practical application skills to implement climate-smart support systems effectively. This is supported by Maka et al. (2021), who postulated that extension personnel, despite their theoretical understanding of climate change and its causes, often lack practical knowledge to effectively implement a CSA approach. Extension worker curricula usually neglect agricultural sector needs, focusing on theoretical knowledge and production without considering social, human and business dimensions, resulting in unprepared graduates (Van Niekerk et al. 2022; Zikhali et al. 2020). While extension personnel demonstrate a basic theoretical understanding of climate change and can identify its causes and definitions, most lack practical knowledge to effectively apply a CSA approach to assist farmers (Maka et al. 2021). This gap is particularly evident in conservation agriculture, where extension workers promote it as the most popular climate-coping strategy but require new competencies for its correct application (Afful 2016).
The training deficit is compounded by inadequate government support for professional development. A shortage of trained extension workers leads to high extension agent-to-farmer ratios, reducing the quality and frequency of interactions and limiting the capacity for personalised advice and follow-up (Makamane et al. 2025; Singh & Mishra 2024). This results in insufficient knowledge dissemination and low adoption rates of new technologies among farmers (Msweli et al. 2024). The improvement of extension service delivery is contingent on addressing competency gaps (Steinke et al. 2021; Van Niekerk et al. 2022). This necessitates collaboration between educational institutions, government agencies and stakeholders to revise curricula and promote problem-oriented approaches (Cook, Satizábal & Curnow 2021; Von Maltitz & Van Niekerk 2023).
Studies by Popoola, Yusuf and Monde (2020) and Raidimi and Kabiti (2019) indicated that extension officers noted with concern that government agencies failed to organise relevant training courses that addressed climate variability and agricultural production, indicating that officers needed retraining to provide valuable information to farmers. Specific CSA training programmes must be developed for extension officers to equip them with the knowledge needed to help farmers deal with climate change challenges (Maka et al. 2021; Molieleng et al. 2021). Steinke et al. (2021) and Mapiye et al. (2021) postulated that digital literacy and poor connectivity prevented extension workers and farmers from benefiting from digital platforms, mobile advisories and modern communication tools. This indicated that inadequate or outdated training for extension workers limited their technical knowledge, teaching capacity and ability to effectively introduce or facilitate new technologies and practices.
Infrastructure constraints
Poor road networks, limited demonstration facilities and inadequate information and communication technology access affect climate-smart-based extension services (Mapiye et al. 2025; Mbatha 2024). The absence of well-equipped extension units, offices and farmer training centres can hinder service delivery. Physical infrastructure, such as demonstration plots, storage facilities and market access points, is often lacking, thereby limiting the ability of extension services to provide hands-on support and facilitate technology adoption (Maake & Antwi 2022; Serote et al. 2023).
Sociocultural and adoption barriers
Sociocultural factors play a role in limiting innovation uptake (Habanyati & Paramasivam 2025). A study by Bontsa et al. (2023) highlighted that 80% of farmers in the Eastern Cape regarded climate change-related extension services as helpful. Most of them noted that the service was of poor quality, and this perception was attributed to socioeconomic factors (Bontsa et al. 2023). Gender and youth exclusion are critical in enhancing extension services. Current extension models often fail to adequately engage women and youth, whereas these groups represent the backbone of future food systems. Research suggests designing inclusive services that address gender- and age-specific needs, including training sessions, recruitment of female and youth extension workers and sensitisation programmes (Phelps 2024; Ranjitha & Malhotra 2024). Prioritisation of inclusive training, capacity building and entrepreneurship pathways that empower marginalised groups as active participants rather than passive recipients is critical in climate-smart extension.
Translation gaps between training and practical implementation
Adoption of climate-smart technologies, particularly irrigation, is hampered by limited awareness, lack of training and asset fixity, such as the inability to shift from established practices because of resource constraints (Habanyati & Paramasivam 2025; Olabanji & Chitakira 2025). Msweli et al. (2024) and Molieleng et al. (2021) noted that adoption of CSA and irrigation technologies remains low in many areas, despite awareness of their benefits. Where extension services are more accessible and better resources are available, adoption rates are higher (Agholor, Olorunfemi & Ogujiuba 2023; Mapiye & Dzama 2024). When training is provided, the translation into practice is inconsistent. Maka et al. (2021) and Serote et al. (2023) highlighted that high participation in training does not always result in adoption, indicating a need for more effective, context-specific extension approaches. It is therefore imperative that collaborative measures be implemented and consolidated. This will encourage the adoption of CSA practices among farmers while equipping extension officers with relevant information to boost agricultural production in South Africa.
Implications
Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the significance of climate-smart extension services. Effective delivery of extension services enhances the adoption of CSA among farmers. This promotes immediate knowledge acquisition and improved decision-making. The adoption of CSA practices on a wider scale will lead to enhanced productivity and resilience. Addressing all the potential constraints and challenges faced by farmers and extension officers will boost sustainable farming, improve climate resilience in the agriculture sector and enhance national food security across the country.
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FIGURE 2: Summary of implications of climate-smart extension services. |
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Future research
Future research on CSA and extension should prioritise cost-effectiveness and long-term impacts through studies tracking farmers’ knowledge, practices and productivity over a long time. It is also recommended that an evaluation be conducted on institutional mechanisms to identify constraints and analyse coherence in current agricultural and climate policies. Economic analysis should assess investment needs for enhancing CSA services across South Africa’s diverse agroecological zones. Additionally, research should address specific challenges faced by women, youth and agricultural value chains in accessing CSA extension services and the potential of digital technologies to improve these services. Findings from these research avenues will inform policy, refine extension strategies and contribute to more resilient and sustainable agricultural systems in South Africa under climate-linked stressful conditions.
Conclusion
The study showed that agricultural extension services significantly enable farmers to navigate climate challenges and build resilience. The reviewed literature highlighted that agricultural extension services in South Africa are significant in necessitating a shift from traditional models to climate-responsive systems. Limited capacity building, poor coordination and financial, sociocultural, infrastructural and technical constraints impede the translation of extension services and adoption of CSA. Extension services that promote the integration of crop and livestock production and water management are essential for improving agricultural production. Addressing institutional constraints and promoting inclusive practices have the potential to enhance the effectiveness of extension services, supporting sustainable agricultural transformation owing to climate variability. It was recommended that the implementation of targeted training and the building of collaborations between the government and relevant stakeholders be promoted. This is significant in advancing the delivery of extension services for the enhancement of climate-resilient agriculture and national food security. It is recommended that regular targeted training for extension workers on CSA, increased farm visits, the use of effective and reliable multiple communication channels, the conduct of field demonstrations and farmer-led trials, strengthened government funding and institutional coordination and the building of public–private partnerships be prioritised to scale up climate-smart practices.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
CRediT authorship contribution
Chenaimoyo L. F. Katiyatiya: Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Thobeka Ncanywa: Conceptualisation, Funding acquisition, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Walter Sisulu University Research Ethics Committee on 15 June 2023. The ethical clearance number is FEDREC15-06-23-3.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article because no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
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