A systematic review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al. 2021). The review focused on articles published on agricultural extension services and CSA between 2000 and 2025, capturing recent developments in agriculture in South Africa. The databases used for the literature search were Web of Science and Scopus. However, the initial search did not yield many results. Therefore, the literature search was expanded using SpringerLink, Agricola, PubMed and Google Scholar databases, as well as reference lists, to identify any literature that may have been overlooked in the initial search. The databases were used to broaden the comprehensive literature search and reduce the risk of bias. The search strings used were:

Study selection for relevant literature was conducted by two independent reviewers who screened the titles and abstracts. Full-text reviews of potentially relevant retrieved articles were assessed by the independent reviewers against the eligibility criteria. Eligible studies focused on agricultural extension services, extension officers, farmers and policymakers within agricultural development. Studies discussing CSA practices, adoption, implementation and related extension service delivery focusing on South Africa were considered. Empirical research studies and grey literature that provided primary data, as well as review articles providing insights relevant to the current study, were also considered. Empirical studies were defined as published articles that used qualitative, quantitative and mixed-method approaches to collect data on CSA and extension services. Grey literature included reports and publications that highlighted methodologies and empirical evidence. The inclusion criteria also considered studies published in English between 2000 and 2025. Excluded literature included studies that did not focus on South Africa or were not directly related to agricultural extension or CSA, opinion pieces, editorials and duplicate publications.

A total of 527 records were initially identified from all the databases and manual searches. Duplicates were removed, and the remaining 182 studies were screened based on their titles and abstracts. Of these, 92 records were excluded based on title and abstract screening because they were not relevant to CSA and agricultural extension. Full texts for 90 articles were assessed for eligibility based on the inclusion criteria. This resulted in the exclusion of 34 studies because they did not focus on South Africa or extension services, or lacked discussion of the prospects and constraints of CSA. A total of 56 studies that met all the inclusion criteria were included in the narrative review as illustrated in Figure 1. Mendeley reference management software was utilised to sort the literature, remove duplicates and group the studies.

Findings show that climate change has significantly affected agriculture and food security for South African smallholder farmers, primarily because of water scarcity and drought (Omotayo et al. 2025a). Makamane et al. (2025) reported that prolonged droughts impacted 54% of farmers, while 20% were affected by changing rainfall patterns, leading to reduced agricultural productivity and food and nutrition insecurity across different provinces. South Africa’s status as one of the driest countries and its uneven rainfall distribution have severely limited dryland crop production, particularly in vulnerable areas such as the Vhembe district (Serote et al. 2021). Furthermore, climate variability has increased extreme weather events, worsening water scarcity and negatively affecting crop production (Maponya & Mpandeli 2013).

Omotayo et al. (2025a) found that smallholder farmers adopted water conservation techniques, such as soil and water conservation practices, to reduce water loss and irrigation needs and combat climate challenges. Senyolo et al. (2021) reported that climate-smart irrigation technologies such as rainwater harvesting, drip and sprinkler irrigation were utilised. Additionally, micro-catchments, mulching and water harvesting improved efficiency in semi-arid areas (Zuma-Netshiukhwi et al. 2025). Precision irrigation and in-field water harvesting were key innovations for addressing water scarcity and enhancing sustainable management within CSA frameworks (Makamane et al. 2025; Olabanji & Chitakira 2025).

The findings show that South African smallholder farmers are implementing diverse CSA practices with varying success. Omotayo et al. (2025a) found that in Limpopo, Mpumalanga and North-West provinces, more than 60% of farmers adopted CSA methods such as soil and water conservation and drought-tolerant varieties. The Mangaung Metropolitan Municipality reported higher adoption at 66% of farmers, utilising practices such as agroforestry and improved water management (Makamane et al. 2023). However, the adoption of climate-smart irrigation technologies was lower at 46% in Limpopo (Serote et al. 2021). Specific CSA techniques differed by province, with drought-tolerant maize and zero tillage noted in North-West, while the Free State and Limpopo showed broader agroecological strategies including crop rotation and livestock integration (Omotoso et al. 2024). Similar climate-smart strategies implemented by farmers were reported by Olabanji and Chitakira (2025) and Zuma-Netshiukhwi et al. (2025).

Adoption of CSA has a positive influence on food security. This concurs with Omotayo et al. (2025a), who found a 30% increase in Household Dietary Diversity Scores (HDDS) and a 35% reduction in Household Food Insecurity Access Scores (HFIAS). Similar reports on improved food and nutrition security associated with the adoption of CSA practices were observed by Omotayo, Omotoso and Asong (2025b) and Omotayo et al. (2025a). Omotoso et al. (2024) reported that smallholder maize farmers who adopted CSA practices had improved food and nutrition security, as they had lower HFIAS and higher HDDS than non-adopters, respectively. This is significant because increased HDDS indicates better dietary quality and nutrition security, while decreased HFIAS reflects improved food accessibility for households (Atta-Aidoo et al. 2022). Better food consumption patterns and dietary diversity among farmers adopting CSA practices were also reported by Khumalo, Sibanda and Mdoda (2025). Senyolo et al. (2021) found that the use of drought-tolerant seeds improved crop yields, leading to reduced food prices and enhanced food security. Serote et al. (2021) and Maponya and Mpandeli (2013) highlighted that extension services further decreased the likelihood of food scarcity and high food prices for farmers receiving support.

Extension services are crucial for promoting CSA adoption in South Africa, yet their impact varies significantly (Omotayo et al. 2025a, 2025b). In Mangaung, 71% of smallholder farmers accessed extension services compared to 49% in Limpopo (Makamane et al. 2023). The quality of services was affected by low education levels among extension officers (Makamane et al. 2023). Stakeholders such as the government and non-governmental organisations provide extension services; however, factors such as poor service quality, lack of coordination and insufficient resources limit their effectiveness (Olabanji & Chitakira 2025). Despite these challenges, farmers with effective extension support are more likely to adopt CSA practices. This will contribute to improvements in technology adoption and the alleviation of unemployment and food shortages (Maponya & Mpandeli 2013; Olabanji & Chitakira 2025).

Extension services play a vital role in enhancing farmers’ awareness of climate risks, encouraging technology adoption and aiding resource management. This is supported by Abegunde, Sibanda and Obi (2022) and Maka (2025). In the Eastern Cape, these services have promoted improved knowledge of drought-resistant crops and innovative practices (Maka, Ighodaro & Ngcobo-Ngotho 2019). This highlights the significance of agricultural extension services in South Africa for knowledge diffusion and learning, which connect smallholder farmers with the Department of Agriculture (Christian et al. 2020; Kephe, Brilliant & Kingsley 2021).

South Africa’s extension system has shifted to a pluralistic model involving various stakeholders, although traditional training methods are still being implemented (Davis & Terblanché 2016; Mudzielwana 2024). Maulu et al. (2021) reported that the traditional ‘top-down’ approach to extension, where knowledge is commonly disseminated from experts to farmers, is largely ineffective. More effective participatory approaches, such as farmer field schools, are gaining recognition. A shift to a more participatory and holistic approach, involving close collaboration with farmers and other stakeholders, is critical (Smidt & Jokonya 2022; Van Niekerk, Von Maltitz & Davis 2022). A study by Bhatnagar et al. (2024) showed that extension services act as critical links between farmers and climate information, early warning systems, value chains and financial resources. They, in turn, function as innovation brokers in climate-resilient agri-food systems.

Despite their potential, extension services face persistent constraints such as institutional, financial, technical, infrastructure-related and sociocultural and adoption barriers. A study by Rankoana (2023) reported that South Africa had no specific recommended extension model because of previously observed failures. Molieleng, Fourie and Nwafor (2021) reported that extension and advisory services play a crucial role in the adoption of CSA practices. However, limited access to extension services or a lack of access to extension services has been reported in South Africa. Maka et al. (2019) found that more than 60% of livestock farmers in the Eastern Cape had challenges with the availability of extension services. Gwala, Monde and Muchenje (2016) found that the lack of extension support affected farmers under the Nguni cattle project. These findings highlight challenges currently faced by farmers and extension officers in service delivery.

Sociocultural factors play a role in limiting innovation uptake (Habanyati & Paramasivam 2025). A study by Bontsa et al. (2023) highlighted that 80% of farmers in the Eastern Cape regarded climate change-related extension services as helpful. Most of them noted that the service was of poor quality, and this perception was attributed to socioeconomic factors (Bontsa et al. 2023). Gender and youth exclusion are critical in enhancing extension services. Current extension models often fail to adequately engage women and youth, whereas these groups represent the backbone of future food systems. Research suggests designing inclusive services that address gender- and age-specific needs, including training sessions, recruitment of female and youth extension workers and sensitisation programmes (Phelps 2024; Ranjitha & Malhotra 2024). Prioritisation of inclusive training, capacity building and entrepreneurship pathways that empower marginalised groups as active participants rather than passive recipients is critical in climate-smart extension.

Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the significance of climate-smart extension services. Effective delivery of extension services enhances the adoption of CSA among farmers. This promotes immediate knowledge acquisition and improved decision-making. The adoption of CSA practices on a wider scale will lead to enhanced productivity and resilience. Addressing all the potential constraints and challenges faced by farmers and extension officers will boost sustainable farming, improve climate resilience in the agriculture sector and enhance national food security across the country.

Future research on CSA and extension should prioritise cost-effectiveness and long-term impacts through studies tracking farmers’ knowledge, practices and productivity over a long time. It is also recommended that an evaluation be conducted on institutional mechanisms to identify constraints and analyse coherence in current agricultural and climate policies. Economic analysis should assess investment needs for enhancing CSA services across South Africa’s diverse agroecological zones. Additionally, research should address specific challenges faced by women, youth and agricultural value chains in accessing CSA extension services and the potential of digital technologies to improve these services. Findings from these research avenues will inform policy, refine extension strategies and contribute to more resilient and sustainable agricultural systems in South Africa under climate-linked stressful conditions.